The History of the Antidepressant Prozac

The History of the Antidepressant Prozac Prozac is the registered trademarked name for fluoxetine hydrochloride, one of the worlds most widely prescribed antidepressants. It was the first product in a major class of drugs for depression called selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors- or SSRIs. The drugs history dates to the early 1970s when the role of serotonin in depression began to emerge, according to David T. Wong, K.W. Perry, and F.P. Bymaster, in their September 2005 article, The Discovery of Fluoxetine Hydrochloride (Prozac), published in the journal Nature Reviews: Drug Discovery. They add: These studies led to the discovery and development of the selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitor fluoxetine hydrochloride (Prozac; Eli Lilly), which was approved for the treatment of depression by the U.S. FDA in 1987. Prozac was first introduced to the U.S. market in January 1988 and  gained its most prescribed status within two years. The Invention of Prozac The story of Prozac began when biochemist Ray W. Fuller came to work at Eli Lilly in 1963, according to the Science History Institute: In his research Fuller had used rats treated with chloroamphetamine, which inhibited the production of serotonin, to measure the effects of other drugs on serotonin levels. Fuller believed that this method would forward research on brain chemistry. Two other scientists, Bryan Molloy and Wong- who coauthored the article previously mentioned in the introduction- joined Fuller in his work at Eli Lilly. In 1971 both Molloy and Wong attended a lecture on neurotransmission given by Solomon Snyder, a researcher from Johns Hopkins University, the institute notes. Snyder had ground up rat brains, separated out the nerve endings, and created an extract of nerve endings that worked in the same way as living nerve cells. Wong then used this technique to test the effects of various compounds, one of which was found to block the reuptake of serotonin with no side effects. The compound, fluoxetine, became the drug that was eventually named Prozac. Interestingly, Eli Lilly first tested Prozac as a treatment for high blood  pressure and then as an anti-obesity agent, noted Anna Moore in a 2007 article in The Guardian, a British newspaper. Eventually, after further studies by Fuller, Malloy, and Wong, Eli Lilly sought and received FDA approval (in December 1987) and the next month began to market Prozac as happiness in a blister pack, Moore noted. Skyrocketing Sales Sales of the drug took off: By the end of 1988, 2.5 million prescriptions for it were dispensed in America, according to Siddhartha Mukherjee in his article, Post-Prozac Nation: The Science and History of Treating Depression, published in The New York Times Magazine in April 2002, a year when the number of Prozac prescriptions had risen to more than 33 million annually. Though other antidepressants have taken over the top spots, Prozac was still the sixth-most popular such drug in the U.S. with 24.5 million annual prescriptions in 2015, according to Tim Hrenchir in his article, 10 Most-Prescribed Antidepressant Medications, published in July 2018 on NewsMax Health. How It Works Prozac works by increasing brain levels of serotonin, a neurotransmitter that is thought to influence sleep, appetite, aggression, and mood. Neurotransmitters are chemicals that carry messages between nerve cells. They’re secreted by one cell and picked up by receptor proteins on the surface of another. A neurotransmitter is either destroyed or retrieved into the cell that made it after the message has been delivered. This process is known as reuptake.   The effect of serotonin is amplified when reuptake is inhibited. Although its  not entirely known why increasing neurotransmitter levels reduces the severity of a depression, it may be that increased levels of serotonin cause changes in the brains concentration of neurotransmitter-binding receptors. This might make the brain physically more capable of feeling good. Since its introduction in the U.S., Prozac has met with mixed reviews by scientists, patients, and doctors, and has provoked its share of debate. Controversy and Clinical Trials In her 1994 book  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Prozac Nation,†Ã‚  Elizabeth Wurtzel wrote of a nearly transcendental experience after she started taking the drug, moving from an absence of affect, absence of feeling, absence of response, absence of interest and a â€Å"suicidal reverie† to a generally blissful state. Indeed, Wurtzels book helped the antidepressant gain even greater popularity. Peter Kramer in his 1993 book, Listening to Prozac coined the term better than well in describing how patients felt after taking the drug. But others began to question the effectiveness of Prozac, such as psychologist Irving Kirsch who wrote an article in 1998 in the journal Prevention Treatment titled, â€Å"Listening to Prozac but Hearing Placebo,† where he argued that antidepressants, including Prozac, were much less effective than was generally believed. In 2010, he published a book with the same argument called â€Å"The Emperor’s New Drugs: Exploding the Antidepressant Myth.† Clinical trials were conducted that both supported and questioned the efficacy of Prozac. For example, Jay C. Fournier, et al., in a 2010 article published in the JAMA, called Antidepressant Drug Effects and Depression Severity: A Patient-Level Meta-analysis, evaluated patient data from six trials and found that all antidepressants, including fluoxetine hydrochloride, exhibited minimal efficacy in mild to moderate depression. Conversely, in a 2009  systematic review of the literature, the National Institute of Care and Clinical Excellence found that strong evidence existed for the efficacy of SSRIs, including Prozac. Backlash and Continued Use PBS on the People and Discoveries section of its website notes that reports also emerged that some patients felt more suicidal when they were on Prozac. Other negative references to Prozac also began to emerge in society, PBS notes: Lawyers began to defend murder suspects by saying that whatever they did, it was under the influence of a drug Prozac. In all, there were backlashes against Prozac, and later backlashes against the backlashes. The drug eventually settled into the middle of the pack of antidepressants. As noted, Prozac is no longer the most prescribed antidepressant, but it continues to hold a place in the pharmacists formulary, as PBS describes it: It is today one of the dozen or so drugs in the U.S. that continue to be prescribed to millions for antidepression.

Haas School of Business Programs and Admissions

Haas School of Business Programs and Admissions The Haas School of Business, also known as Haas or Berkeley Haas, is a University of California, Berkeley school. UC Berkeley is a public research university that was founded in 1868 in the state of California. Haas was founded just 30 years later, making it the second oldest business school in the United States. Haas School of Business has more than 40,000 alumni and is frequently ranked among the best schools in the nation. Degrees are offered at the undergraduate and graduate level. Nearly 60 percent of Haas students are enrolled in one of the three available MBA programs. Haas Undergraduate Programs Haas School of Business offers a Bachelor of Science in Business degree program. The programs curriculum consists of a 7-course breadth sequence, which requires students to take at least one class in each of the following categories: arts and literature, biological science, historical studies, international studies, philosophy and values, physical science, and social and behavioral sciences. Students are encouraged to spread these courses out over the four years that it takes to earn the degree. The Bachelor of Science in Business curriculum also includes core business courses in areas like business communication, accounting, finance, marketing, and organizational behavior. Students are also allowed to customize their education with business electives that focus on more nuanced topics like corporate finance, leadership, and brand management. Students who want a global view of business can participate in Haas study aboard or travel study programs. Getting In Haas Bachelor of Science in Business degree program is open to students enrolled in UC Berkeley as well as students who are transferring in from another undergraduate school. Admissions are very competitive, and there are prerequisites that must be met prior to applying. For example, applicants must complete a minimum of 60 semester or 90 quarter units as well as several prerequisite courses prior to submitting an application. Preference is given to applicants who are California residents. Applicants who are transferring from a California community college may also have an edge. To apply to a Haas School of Business program, you should have some work experience. Students in the Full-Time MBA and EWMBA program typically have at least two years of work experience, with most students having five years or more. Students in the EMBA program usually have ten years of work experience or more. A  GPA  of at least 3.0 is standard for applicants, though it is not a firm requirement. At  minimum, applicants should be able to demonstrate academic aptitude and have some quantitative proficiency to be considered for the program. Haas MBA Programs Haas School of Business has three MBA programs: Full-Time MBA Program: The full-time MBA program is for students who do not plan to work while they earn their degree. This program takes two years to complete and requires full-day class attendance Monday through Thursday.Evening and Weekend (EWMBA) Program: The EWMBA program is a part-time MBA program that allows students to continue working while they earn their degree. Students in this program can attend school two evenings during the week or all day on Saturday. Either way, the program takes 2.5 years to 3 years to complete.MBA for Executives (EMBA) Program: The EMBA program is a part-time program for students who are either executives or have a lot of work experience. This program, which takes about 19 months to complete, meets Thursday through Saturday every three weeks. All three MBA programs at Haas are campus-based programs that are taught by the same faculty and result in the same MBA degree. Students in every program complete core business courses related to accounting, finance, marketing management, leadership, microeconomics, macroeconomics, and other business topics. Haas also provides global experiences for students in every MBA program and encourages tailored education through evolving electives. Other Graduate Programs at Haas School of Business Haas School of Business offers a one-year Master of Financial Engineering program that is designed to prepare students for careers as financial engineers. To earn a degree from this full-time program, students must complete 30 units of coursework  in addition to a 10-12 week internship. Admissions for this program are very competitive; fewer than 70 students are admitted each year. Applicants who have a background in a quantitative field, such as finance, statistics, mathematics, or computer science; high scores on the Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT) or the Graduate Record Examinations (GRE) General Test; and an undergraduate GPA of 3.0 have the best chance of acceptance. Haas also offers a PhD program that allows students to study one of six business areas: accounting, business and public policy, finance, marketing, management of organizations, and real estate. This program admits fewer than 20 students each year and usually requires four or five years of study to complete. Applicants do not need to come from a specific background or have a minimum GPA, but they should be able to demonstrate scholarly ability and have research interests and career goals that are aligned with the program.

Mare Parker Follett Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Mare Parker Follett - Research Paper Example She attended Braintree’s Thayer Academy in Massachusetts. It is in this academy that her later ideas were inspired by one of her teachers. In 1885, September, Follett enrolled for studies at Society to Encourage Studies at Home in Anna Ticknor (Soylent Communications Para 1). She also studied at Radcliffe College, although she was on and off the college and graduated later in 1898. She sought to pursue her doctorate degree in Harvard, but was denied on grounds that she was a woman. Follett began her work in Roxbury in 1900 as a volunteer social worker. She was later to hold a number of prestigious and highly coveted leadership positions, including: being the chair person of the Women's Municipal League Committee on Extended Use of School Buildings (1908), being the vice president of the National Community Center Association (1917). She also founded or contributed in opening a number of social and educational institutions , including the East Boston High School Social Center an d many other Boston social centers . Contribution to the Field of Management Mary Parker Follett pioneered a number of theories relating to organizational behavior, industrial management, organizational theory and conflict management which she communicated through her books, articles, speeches and essays.

Fiscal Policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Fiscal Policy - Essay Example From the research it can be comprehended that fiscal policy refers to the means used by the government in spending and taxation to monitor or influence the economy. In a way, the government has to adjust its level of spending to influence the economy. This fiscal instrument is used by the government each year to manage its economy for the benefit of the citizens. The tax implications on the nation’s budget have different inferences to different groups of people within society. Fiscal policy focuses generally on the fiscal changes in government revenue and expenditure and their impact upon nation’s economy. Tax and expenditure are the basic fiscal policy instruments. However, the most potent fiscal instrument used by a government is taxation. Taxation has led to reduction of consumption, increases investments, and allow for the transfer of government resources to economic development. Taxation has impact to the general level of output by altering the incentives that inst itutions encounter. Taxation is imposed by government to cut the cost of governance and communal services. Taxation also facilitates resource re-allocation, and enhances the promotion through equitable wealth distribution, to enhance economic growth and development. This also ensures economic stability by correcting and controlling macroeconomic shocks which are both policy-induced or exogenous. Hence, we are able to understand the gap between the level of expenditure and taxation. When the government revenue is high, the liquidity trap increases in the money supply, which does not contribute to the improvement of economic growth due to downward pressure experienced in investment (because of insensitivity of interest rate compared to money supply) (Alesina & Tabellini 2005). Likewise, this may also occur when the government expenditure surpasses revenue. The most important factor to consider in such a case is not the level of the deficit but the change that accompanies the deficit. Fiscal policy is an important instrument that is used to monitor government’s economy due to its impact on GDP (Alesina & Tabellini 2005). Fiscal policy has been associated with the use of taxation and public expenditure to influence the level of economic activities. The implementation of fiscal policy is channeled through government’s budget.   An important aspect of a public budget is its use as a tool in the management of a nation’s economy (Alesina & Tabellini 2005). During economic recession, the government plans for budget deficit which is often referred to as expansionary fiscal policy. In such a situation, taxes are reduced with a subsequent increase in the government expenditure, and during depression, or economic boom, the government may decide on a budget surplus to slow down the economy. This implies that through reduction in taxes, the purchasing power of individuals is enhanced and the cost of production of workers reduces, thereby improving thei r scale of operations in the business cycle. On the other hand, increases in public expenditure when effectively used can lead into improved developments in the nation’s infrastructure. Consequently, there is an increase in general welfare and places the economy on the path of growth. This explains the first impact of fiscal policy on improving the demands for goods and services. The aggregate demands make it an important instrument for a government’s economic stabilization. Fiscal growth has affects the output level and has implications on a country’s savings. Thus, in fiscal expansion, the government will be forced to reduce savings, which is equivalent to a budget surplus. The reduction in fiscal deficits may lead to increase in domestic production. Furthermore, it may lead to stable exchange rate that should be pursued as means of controlling inflation in a nation. 2. With the aid of a diagram, show and explain how fiscal policy can be used to shift

Book Keeping Essay Example for Free

Book Keeping Essay Book keeping it also referred as the keeping of book. Book keeping is the process of keeping full, accurate, up-to-date business records. Proper methods can help businesses effectively manage cash flow, stay abreast of profit and losses, and develop plans for the future based on financial trends. Furthermore, keeping accurate book is required by both federal and local tax agencies. The book keeping process involves making a record of the monies received by a business as well as the monies paid out. It encompasses money a company owes to vendors, employees, tax agencies, contractors, and any other individual or entity. Likewise, accurate records of amounts owed to a company by outside individuals and organizations are also recorded in a companys books. Though necessary and beneficial to business owners, the task can be very time consuming. With no exceptions, every monetary amount that is paid or received must be recorded. Additionally, accuracy is of the utmost importance, making keeping the books in a rushed manner a very bad idea. As business owners are often lacking in time, many choose to hire professional bookkeepers to keep company records well maintained. Of the many reasons for keeping accurate records, business and income taxes are among the most important. In the United States, for example, the Internal Revenue Service requires business owners to keep financial records that are complete and up-to-date. State and city tax agencies may require businesses to maintain accurate records as well. In fact, a business owner who fails to keep acceptable financial records may be liable for significant monetary fines or other penalties. A companys books are used to determine the amount of taxes the company must pay, and they are also used in preparing tax returns. Sometimes, a tax agency may decide to investigate the information reported on a return or other type of tax-related document. In such cases, business owners are required to present accurate records for the tax agencys inspection. Failure to do so could lead to hefty fines, penalties, or in severe cases, imprisonment. Although hiring bookkeeping professionals may be a good idea for many companies, not all business owners can afford to do so. This is particularity true of smaller, home-based, or start-up businesses. Fortunately, there are many computer programs designed to make the task of keeping the books manageable and less time consuming. Many programs handle all of the calculations for the user, taking the worry out of keeping accurate figures. Available even to those on tight budgets, this software makes record keeping easy. (N. Madison, 2013, Wise Geek.)[online] ACCOUNTING CYCLE The accounting cycle is often described as a process that includes the following steps: identifying, collecting and analyzing documents and transactions, recording the transactions in journals, posting the journalized amounts to accounts in the general and subsidiary ledgers, preparing an unadjusted trial balance, perhaps preparing a worksheet, determining and recording adjusting entries, preparing an adjusted trial balance, preparing the financial statements, recording and posting closing entries, preparing a post-closing trial balance, and perhaps recording reversing entries. Cycle and steps seem to be a carryover from the days of manual bookkeeping and accounting when transactions were first written into journals. In a separate step the amounts in the journal were posted to accounts. At the end of each month, the remaining steps had to take place in order to get the monthly, manually-prepared financial statements. Today, most companies use accounting software that processes many of these steps simultaneously. The speed and accuracy of the software reduces the accountant’s need for a worksheet containing the unadjusted trial balance, adjusting entries, and the adjusted trial balance. The accountant can enter the adjusting entries into the software and can obtain the complete financial statements by simply selecting the reports from a menu. After reviewing the financial statements, the accountant can make additional adjustments and almost immediately obtain the revised reports. The software will also prepare, record, and post the closing entries. (Harold,A.2013,Accounting Coach.)[online]. SOURCE DOCUMENTS Source documents are documents, such as cash slips, invoices, etc. that form the source of (and serve as proof for) a transaction. In other words, they are the first documents that exist relating to a transaction. Invoices, cash slips, receipts, check counterfoils, bank deposit slips ,credit notes ,debit notes ,voucher , purchase orders and even internet payment confirmations are all source documents. For example: Invoices Credit Notes Receipts Voucher Purchase orders BOOK OF PRIME ENTRY Book of prime entry is book used in recording transaction. Books of prime entry are also known as books of original entry or subsidiary books. Types of books of prime entry: Books of prime entry are also known as either ‘journals’ or ‘daybooks’. The term ‘day book’ is, perhaps, more commonly used, as it more clearly indicates the nature of these books of prime entry – entries are made to them every day. The commonly used books of prime entry are: Sale Day Book /Sale Journals Sale journals is to record credit sales. Purchases Day Book/Purchases Journals Purchases journals is to record credit purchases. Sales Return Day Book/Return In Journals Return in journals is to record returns from customers. Purchases Return Day Book/Return Out Journals Return out journals is to record returns to suppliers. General journal/The journal The journal is to record other transactions. The cashbook is a combined account of the cash account and the bank account. It is the only one of the six daybooks that is both an account and a daybook at the same time. Apart from the cashbook, all the other double-entry accounts are kept in one of the three ledgers. Example for 3 Column Cash Book LEDGER (T-ACCOUNT) The ledger is a collective term for the accounts of a business. (A ledger of accounts is like a school of fish). The accounts are in the shape of a ‘T’ and thus are often referred to as ‘T-accounts’. In this step we take all the debits and credits (journals) relating to one account – let’s say ‘bank’ – and draw up an account for bank that shows all the transactions relating to it. The different types of ledgers most businesses use are: Sale Ledgers Sale ledgers is to record customers account balance. Purchases Ledgers Purchases ledgers is to record suppliers account balance. General Ledgers General ledgers is to record miscellaneous account. Example: PETTY CASH BOOK The petty cash book is used to record the changes to the petty cash fund – both money put into the fund and money taken out. The fund is commenced with a petty cash advance cheque and topped up with a reimbursement cheque at the end of each petty cash period.The petty cash book is prepared from the petty cash vouchers, as well as the details from the advance and reimbursement cheque butts. The petty cash book is prepared from: advance (and/or reimbursement) cheque butt/s completed and authorised petty cash vouchers. The totals can be checked by cross-adding related column totals.The total of the vouchers (Cash Payments column total) added to the balance left in the petty cash fund (Balance column) should always equal the imprest amount. TRIAL BALANCE A sheet displaying all the accounts of a business, drawn up as a trial (test) of whether the total of all the debit balances equal the total of all the credit balances (A balance is the amount of an item at a point in time. For example, The balance in the bank account on the 1st of January was $5,000.). The trial balance is prepared as a final check just before the financial statements are drawn up. The trial balance is our penultimate step in the accounting cycle. Example for Trial Balance: FINAL ACCOUNT Final accounts are all of the financial statement for a business or company at the end of the fiscal or calendar year, on whichever the business calendar the company operates. The statements for the final accounts show the gross profit and net income of the company. A number of accounts are included, such as the profit and loss statement for the business, the balance sheet, and the trading account. The profit and loss statement tracks all of the income that comes into the company, as well as the expenses that the company pays out. The profit and loss statement covers a specific period — typically the fiscal year, but it can also cover the calendar year. It shows how revenue becomes net income, and whether or not the company made money for the year. While the company tracks these figures throughout the year, the final accounts include the statement for the cumulative fiscal or calendar year. The balance sheet is another one of the business financial statements that are prepared as part of the final accounts process when the year closes out. The balance sheet provides a quick look at how the company is doing at that specific moment in time, at the end of the year. In addition to assets and liabilities, a balance sheet also includes information on shareholder equity. Trading accounts cover profits and losses incurred from trading securities. Many companies invest in stocks, bonds, mutual funds and other types of investment funds. The final accounts for the trading account show the amount of gain or loss from these investments at the end of the year that the company runs on. Final accounts and the statements that make up these accounts typically help companies to prepare their various tax returns. If the company accountant prepares the tax statements, then the accountant prepares these statements for his or her own use. If the company hires an outside accountant or accounting firm, then the statements for the final accounts are handed over to the third party, so they have the information they need to prepare the companys tax returns and any of tax paperwork that is required. (Kristie,L and Wilborn,C.2013,Wise Geek)[online] INCOME STATEMENT A financial statement that measures a companys financial performance over a specific accounting period. Financial performance is assessed by giving a summary of how the business incurs its revenues and expenses through both operating and non-operating activities. It also shows the net profit or loss incurred over a specific accounting period, typically over a fiscal quarter or year. Also known as the profit and loss statement or statement of revenue and expense. Example for Income Statements: STATEMENT OF FINANCIAL POSITION A statement of financial position, also known as a balance sheet, is a financial document that provides an overview of an entitys finances at a given point in time. These statements are commonly used by companies large and small, but they can also be applied to personal finances, for people who want to generate a document that they can use to review their financial situation for the purpose of making budgeting decisions or financial plans. Many accounting software programs have mechanisms to automatically create one. There are two main areas on a statement of financial position. One covers the assets, everything owned by the person or company, including real estate, cash in hand, contents of bank accounts, and so forth. The other side includes the liabilities, funds owed. A statement usually breaks these sections up into several categories for ease of reference, so that people can quickly look up a topic of particular interest, such as accounts payable or overdue loans. The liabilities also include the ownership equity or the shareholder equity in the business. The assets should equal the liabilities once the ownership or shareholder equity has been factored in, and if they do not, it is a sign that the financial statement is out of balance. This is in accordance with the accounting equation, which states that assets = liabilities + ownership or shareholder equity. Incidentally, this explains the term balance sheet, which reflects the idea that the two sections of the sheet should be equal or balanced. Commonly, a statement of financial position will be generated at the end of every month. Looking up past months can provide information about how a companys finances are progressing, and these documents can also be compared with statements from the same month in prior years. Using this document, decisions can be made about the next steps to take. If, for example, a company has a lot of assets, it may be a sign that it can comfortably expand because it has the available capital to do so. Companies that are publicly traded must provide public disclosures about their financial health, including statements of financial position. These are provided to shareholders by request and are also commonly published to make them readily accessible to prospective investors. If a company has a website, they might be found on a section of the website that includes documents that the company is required to disclose by law. (Smitch,S. and Wallace,O.2013,Wise Geek)[online] Example for Statement of Financial Position: CONCLUSION Book keeping is important to proper accounting records because proper methods can help businesses effectively manage cash flow, stay abreast of profit and losses, and develop plans for the future based on financial trends. Furthermore to complete the financial account, accounting cycle are used. The accounting cycle included source of document, books of prime entry, ledgers, trial balance and the final accounts. REFERENCE 1. Anon.2013,Book of Prime Entry and Ledgers.[online].Available from World Wide Web: http://principlesofaccounting2.com/topics/books-of-prime-entry-and-ledgers/ [Accessed 05/07/2013] 2. Anon.2013,The Accounting Cycle.[online].Available from World Wide Web: http://www.accounting-basics-for-students.com/accounting-cycle.html [Accessed 05/07/2013] 3. Anon.2013,Income Statement.[online].Available from World Wide Web: http://www.investopedia.com/terms/i/incomestatement.asp [Accessed 05/07/2013] 4. Beanne,O.2013,The Complete Accounting Cycle.[online].Available from World Wide Web: http://youraccountingcoach.blogspot.com/2013/01/the-complete-accounting-cycle.html. [Accessed 25/01/2013]

Combining of Old World Animals and the New World Environment Essay exam

Combining of Old World Animals and the New World Environment On the morning of October 12, 1492, as Columbus and his fleet of three ships approached the majestic shores of the new world, it marked the end of one era and the beginning of another. Until this historic moment, the two continents had lived separately from each other, unaware of the other's existence. However, as Columbus and his crew set foot upon the New World, the flood gates were suddenly opened as the country now known as America, fell into the hands of its European discoverers. With their arrival to the virgin lands, the Europeans encountered a world different from their own and quickly sought to "Europeanize" it as soon as possible. In essence, this meant transforming it into something which more closely resembled their home lands (Crosby 64). By manipulating the new environment to better reflect the surrounding of their home country, the explorers and later the settlers, began to break down the fragile ecosystem of the New World. With little regard for their impact on the en vironment, the progressive destruction of the natural habitat continued at an unprecedented rate. The mass devastation of the virgin forests and woodlands shattered the natural balance which had been in place for centuries. Little was spared from the invasive methods of Columbus and his fellow Europeans, including animals. As if the destruction of the native land was not drastic enough, the introduction of Old World species into the New World environment added another factor into the story of the conquest of the New World and its inhabitants. In the years following 1492, an onslaught of European species were introduced into the New World in an attempt to Europeanize the newly discovered ... ... played a part in building what is the environment of present day America. Though these changes took place over four centuries ago, the results can see be seen for the outcome is in front of us every day - a unique and diverse biota composed of species from two worlds meshed together into one living environment. Bibliography Bedini, Silvio A. Editor in Chief. The Christopher Columbus Encyclopedia. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992. Crosby, Jr., Alfred. The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492. West Port, Connecticut, 1972. Gause, as quoted in Krebs, Charles J. Ecology 4th ed. California: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc., 1994. Jones, Jr., Malcom. "When Worlds Collide", Newsweek. Fall/Winter 1991. Sale, Kirkpatrick. The Conquest of Paradise: Christopher Columbus and the Columbian Legacy. New York, Penguin Books, 1990.

Cross-Linguistic and Cross-Cultural Identity Essay

I grew up in a country whose native language is not English. But I grew up learning the English language nevertheless. In my home, we had access to English shows which I was constantly exposed to at a very young age. This is the reason why I learned English without much conscious effort. The language learning was taking place within the sub-conscious, which is the best way to learn any language: constant exposure at a very young age. Mei-Yu (1998, paragraph 2) once said that in the acquisition of oral language, â€Å"young children are active agents†, constantly refining and defining the inputs that they get from their surroundings in way that makes sense to them. Children create hypotheses about language rules, constantly filtering them through active engagement with the more competent language users in their immediate environment. Unconsciously, they learn to recognize contexts and begin acquiring fine discrimination in their use of a language. Looking back, I guess the constant exposure to the English language is the reason why I grew up knowing how to use it. There was never a conscious effort on my part to use or learn English, because it was already ingrained in my person. The people in my household knew English and spoke it on many occasions. I also had access to English books which strengthened my phonological awareness or sound-symbol relationships. This happened side by side while I was learning my mother language as well. As a child with a facility for the English language, I was subject to an excess of attention that I would not have received otherwise, had I just spoken our native tongue and nothing else. There is a prestige attached to the English language that makes people in my country take a second look and listen closely to what I have to say. They also make speculations as to whether my family is reach and if I grew up in the United States or have been travelling there on a regular basis. Such is the high stature of the English language in my country that if you speak it well enough, most people that you are rich or your family is. Growing up, my situation as a multi-lingual was even more fascinating. Perhaps it was because as I grew older, I became more aware of people’s actuations, and I am also more able to discern their motivations for why they act the way they do towards me. In my country there is a fascination for the English language because there is a fascination for the country. My people look at the United States as magical place where dreams come true, and life is generally better. To them, it seems like those who can speak the English language have greater chances of going to the United States as well. This general notion extends in every situation. That is why in every conversation where my ability to speak the English language is displayed, people seem to treat me better and pay me more attention. Sometimes, in order to avoid embarrassment, I hide my fluency in English when interacting with my community. Clearly, there is an overt favor towards those who speak the language, as if we are better than the rest of the local people. This is consistently true in all areas of endeavors, from school to social, to professional career. It is a sad situation, but true nevertheless, and I used my fluency in English and strive to make more of myself, in order to meet society’s expectations. Sometimes it can be difficult, trying to rise up to expectations, but I felt that it was my duty to do so, especially for those who sincerely believed that I could. The situation changed when I moved to the United States. If you are multi-lingual, you are regarded as ethnic, especially if your pronunciation has a very thick and recognizable accent. You will be subject to stereotyping, and in some cases, be even regarded as second class citizens. While I am not saying that everyone will react negatively to your accent or your use of your mother language, it is a reality that there are some people who will take it against you. If there is any field that multilingualism is always an advantage, and that is in the corporate world. This is especially true in the age of globalism, where most companies deal with overseas transactions. Being multilingual means that I can communicate with my colleagues, and at the same time be able to communicate with a client or supplier who speaks my mother tongue, but nothing else. Thus, I am able to bridge the communication gap and make sure that there will be no misunderstandings and conflict later on because of the language barrier. Actually, upon deeper reflection, I realize that people do not react to your multilingualism as much as they are reacting to the accent or how you speak the English language. The lesser your accent, the better people regard you. And this is true regardless or what place you are in. What we speak and how we speak, speak about our history as an individual. How we speak makes a statement towards who we are as a person. And people, for better or for worse, react to that. In an era of increasing globalization, more and more people want to learn English to make themselves more marketable and competitive. However, the value of the mother tongue should never be forgotten. Our mother language keeps our identity intact and sets us apart from the rest. Knowing English is the ship that will help us to get where we want to go, but it is our mother tongue that will be our anchor; the one that will help us find our way should we get lost. Reference Lu, Mei-Yu. (1998). Language Learning in Social and Cultural Contexts. ERIC Digest. Retrieved: April 14, 2007 from http://www. ericdigests. org/1999-2/language. htm

Culture and workplace ethics Essay

Culture in the workplace has very little to do with the well known culture of literature, music and art. In the workplace, culture actually refers to the shared work environment, belief systems, behavior expectations and expected efforts, all of which usually characterize a certain organization or business enterprise. The work setting culture mainly includes things like, socialization expectations, dress code, how different groups within the organization perceive issues relating to attendance, problem solving and quality of work output. Finding the appropriate culture to fit an organization is a vital element in ensuring that a particular field or job is successful. Corporate culture has a lot of influence on ethics of an organization. It is through it that right or wrong decisions are made. They determine whether to adopt strategies that will benefit majority of the people in the workplace positively or adopting ones with an impact of affecting most workers in a negative manner (Russell, Para 3). Effect of culture on workplace ethics The organization’s culture is quite important perhaps more than most people appreciate. It holds various categories of people within an organization together and thus it has a lot of impact on what people within the organization perceive to be right or wrong. Even though certain conducts like corruption might be considered to be vice and thus culturally immoral in some organizations, there are other workplaces where the behavior is considered to be appropriate. Culture is usually deep rooted in an organization since although it is manmade; it takes several decades to grow. New employees in each and every work place are first introduced to the operating culture in the workplace and thus it is usually in each and every person working in the workplace. Ethics comes after culture and it therefore has to sing to the tune of culture (Lagan, & Moran, pp 46). The depth of culture within an organization is usually realized when someone attempts to alter an organization’s culture in a manner that is not consistent with the shared believes and norms of the organization. Such a person usually meets a lot resistance regardless of whether the intended cultural change is ethical or not. Culture within an organization is usually not stagnant but it is rather dynamical so as to take into account the changing business and workplace environment. Due to the fact that the workplace ethics are tied to culture, they also have to keep on changing so as to be consistent with the workplace culture (Russell, Para 4). Workplace ethics is highly influenced by the leadership of the entire organization. These are the people who are charged with the mandate of running the business and making decisions for the entire organization. The organizational culture determines the type of people to take managerial decisions. Therefore, if the culture of an organization is to be led by men and women of high integrity, then the workplace in such an organization is likely to be ethical. This is due to the fact that when an organization is led by such people, they will always make decisions with each and everyone within and without the organization in their mind. Their decisions will in most cases affect majority of the people in a positive manner. In this case, culture is very important on business ethics since it determines in an indirect manner the type of decisions to be made by the managers leading the organization (Hopkins, pp 78). On the other hand, if the organizational culture of a particular enterprise is one that allows men and women of less integrity to lead it, people who enter these offices via unethical channels where merit is not a priority, then such managers will in most cases be unethical. They will in almost all cases make unethical decisions which are likely to only benefit very few individuals within the organization while exposing the majority, mainly the junior members of staff to unfair treatment. Workplaces operating from such environments are mostly unethical and clearly this is as a result of the organizational culture. Most of the decisions adopted in such organizations are usually only aimed at maximizing the profits of the organization without putting into consideration other parties who are likely to suffer as a result of such decisions. These types of managements are mainly self centered and are only worried about their business organizations with little or no concern at all for other people. They are not worried of whether their actions are ethical or not, as long as business is running and making profits nothing else worry them. This attitude is usually enhanced by the organizational culture which in turn affects the workplace ethics significantly (Russell, Para 7). The corporate culture of an enterprise determines the criteria of promotion. If the culture of an organization enhances promotion based on merit, then the workplace will be more ethical as compared to instances where promotion is not based on merit. Since employees seek for promotion every now and then, they have to look for the criterion that is used for promotion so that they can be well equipped to qualify for promotion. Such a culture of promotion will take decades to develop and will thus be very much deep rooted to eliminate within the workplace (Lagan, & Moran, pp 69). The culture of an organization determines the values that are to be held in high regard within the organization. If a culture holds unethical behaviors in high esteem, then such conducts will be dominant in the organization. Rewards will be awarded to those people who excel in such conducts. In this case, the organizational culture is mainly concerned with appreciating the efforts of its employees who have excelled in certain field regardless of whether their actions were ethical or not. Such a culture therefore, promotes unethical behaviors among its employees (Brooks, & Dunn, pp 120). In other organizations, the culture is very clear and is tailored towards promoting ethical behaviors among its employees. In fact, the employees who excel in ethical conducts in various fields in the course of their work are identified in a fair manner and rewarded so as to encourage them to continue in the same spirit and be even more ethical in future. The other employees are also challenged to act ethically and at the same time they are made to desire to act ethically so as to be rewarded like their counterparts who were more ethical than then in a certain period. This form of culture thus acts as a tool for enhancing ethical behaviors within an organization to develop (Bassman, pp 55s). Culture within an organization determines how the organization as whole perceives the outsiders, more so its competitors. There are cultures which are tailored towards viewing the competitors as enemies and thus it promotes actions which will deal with such enterprises as enemies. Such a culture will promote unethical behaviors to its competitors and enmity arises between the two organizations. Culture is responsible for various unethical actions that might be penetrated to the other organization since it has made everyone within the workplace of the organization to develop a negative attitude towards its competitors (Russell, Para 9). At the same time, culture can act as a catalyst for enhancing ethical behaviors among the various employees of the organization especially in their actions towards the competitors. Culture will in this case promote good relations among the two organizations and it will make the employees to perceive the other organization as a competitor and not an enemy. This form of culture will promote actions that will enhance positive competition between the two sides and thus ethical behaviors will be enhanced greatly (Lagan, & Moran, pp 89). While there are employment regulations and laws governing the manner in which employees are to be treated, the ethics of an organization are more tailored by the organizational culture and not such laws and regulations. The ethics therefore goes beyond the regulations and the laws connecting the business practices of an organization to the workers’ personal beliefs. Culture in this case plays a leading role in ensuring that the actions adopted by the organization are in line with it. In this case, the organizational culture ensures that various employees in the workplace within the enterprise work together for a common objective as well as having the intention of doing the right thing in a world that is quite diverse and complex (Bassman, pp 126). The culture in operation within an enterprise determines how an organization treats its outsiders and whether or not it does anything that is likely to affect them negatively. For culture to be able to promote ethical actions among its employees towards the outsiders, then it must be one that encourages decisions that will affect these people in a positive manner. Among the current issues that has brought a lot of criticism in the entire world is that of pollution. An organization is considered to be ethical if it emits fewer pollutants to the environment. This means that it is concerned about the environment and the consequences of disposing untreated chemicals to the environment. On the other hand, there are organizations that are completely unethical. They pollute the environment without really caring how many people will be affected by the same. This affects the workplace environment indirectly since the employees will face hostility from members of public and will in several occasions be referred to as unethical people who do not care about tomorrow. This might make the organization to loose several employees to other companies which are more ethical as employees will like to be associated with organizations with good reputation (Brooks, & Dunn, pp 258). Conclusion Culture is a very important element in every organization. It is responsible in shaping the ethical behavior of the employees and also the workplace ethics. This is due to the fact that ethics within an organization is driven by the culture that is in operation within an organization. Culture is therefore a very important force in driving ethical practices of an enterprise. This is mainly because the organizational culture takes time to grow and mature and that it is taught to all new employees which make it to be deeply rooted within all employees. Culture has the ability of making an organization to act either ethically or unethically. Work cited: Bassman, Emily S. ; Abuse in the workplace: management remedies and bottom line impact; ISBN 089930673X, Quorum, 1992. Brooks, Leonard J. & Dunn, Paul; Business & Professional Ethics for Directors, Executives & Accountants; ISBN 0324594550, Cengage Learning, 2009. Hopkins, Willie Edward. Ethical dimensions of diversity; ISBN 080397289X, SAGE, 1997. Lagan, Attracta & Moran, Brian; Three Dimensional Ethics: Implementing Workplace Values; ISBN 097574223X, eContent Management, 2005. Russell, Mike; Workplace Ethics & Business for Social Responsibility: Initiatives for corporate culture’s committed to ethical business practices, concern for the environment and global humanitarian causes (2008): Retrieved on 5th August 2009 from http://sandiego. jobing. com/blog_post. asp? post=8929.

Prostitution69 essays

Prostitution69 essays For as long as human civilization has existed. the sale of sex and sexual services has been looked upon as a problem by some, and as a way of life by others. People who look at prostitution as a way of life are not just the prostitutes who offer these services. There are many countries in this world that view the sale of sex as a viable source of income and as an accepted social activity. Countries such as Holland view prostitution as a socially accepted way of life and regulate them as such. Even in America where prostitution is criminalized in most states and the negative social stigma that surrounds prostitution plagues politicians to clean up our neighborhoods, you can still find pockets where prostitution is legal and regulated such as Las Vegas. My final project is going to deal with the benefits and problems of legalizing prostitution on many levels such as disease control, taxation, and moral issues. The parties that I will be dealing with are sex workers, Johns, and the g overnment. Having read many views on the issue of sex work, we must first decide what constitutes sex work and to what extent should government be allowed to regulate said work. First, I will make a general definition as to what sex work constitutes. For this paper sex work constitutes performing sexual activities in exchange for money or merchandise. In normal terms, I will be talking about prostitution and strippers. I completely understand that there are other forms of sex work such as pornography but for this paper I do not wish to tackle those subjects. The first question I will talk about is why is sex work is looked upon so negatively, prompting politicians in many countries to outlaw it. Many different groups oppose sex work and each one has a different opinion as to why it is wrong and should be made illegal. These groups range from those opposed to prostitution on moral grounds to legal reasons ...

The Colorful History of the St. Patricks Day Parade

The Colorful History of the St. Patrick's Day Parade The history of the St. Patricks Day parade began with modest gatherings in the streets of colonial America. And throughout the 19th century, large public celebrations to mark St. Patricks Day became potent political symbols. And while the legend of St. Patrick had ancient roots in Ireland, the modern notion of St. Patricks Day came into being in American cities in the 1800s. Over more than two centuries the tradition of the St. Patricks Day parade flourished in American cities. In the modern era the tradition continues and is essentially a permanent part of American life. Fast Facts: The St. Patrick's Day Parade The earliest St. Patricks Day parade in America was conducted by Irish soldiers serving in the British Army.In the early 1800s, the parades tended to be modest neighborhood events, with local residents marching to churches.As Irish immigration increased in America, the parades became large an raucous events, sometimes with dueling parades held on the same day.The famous New York City St. Patricks Day parade is massive yet traditional, with many thousands of marchers yet no floats or motorized vehicles. Roots of the Parade In Colonial America According to legend, the earliest celebration of the holiday in America took place in Boston in 1737, when colonists of Irish descent marked the event with a modest parade. According to a book on the history of St. Patricks Day published in 1902 by John Daniel Crimmins, a New York businessman, the Irish who gathered in Boston in 1737 formed the Charitable Irish Society. The organization comprised Irish merchants and tradesmen of Irish of the Protestant faith. The religious restriction was relaxed and Catholics began to join in the 1740s.   The Boston event is generally cited as the earliest celebration of St. Patricks Day in America. Yet historians as far back as a century ago would point out that a prominent Irish-born Roman Catholic, Thomas Dongan, had been governor of the Province of New York from 1683 to 1688. Given Dongans ties to his native Ireland, it has long been speculated that some observance of St. Patricks Day must have been held in colonial New York during that period. However, no written record of such events seems to have survived. Events from the 1700s are recorded more reliably, thanks to the introduction of newspapers in colonial America. And in the 1760s we can find substantial evidence of St. Patricks Day events in New York City. Organizations of Irish-born colonists would place notices in the citys newspapers announcing St. Patricks Day gatherings to be held at various taverns. On March 17, 1757, a celebration of St. Patricks Day was held at Fort William Henry, an outpost along the northern frontier of British North America. Many of the soldiers garrisoned at the fort were actually Irish. The French (who may have had their own Irish troops) suspected the British fort would be caught off-guard, and they staged an attack, which was repulsed, on St. Patricks Day. The British Army in New York Marked St. Patrick's Day In late March 1766, the New York Mercury reported that St. Patrick’s Day had been marked with the playing of â€Å"fifes and drums, which produced a very agreeable harmony.† Prior to the American Revolution, New York was generally garrisoned by British regiments, and it has been noted that usually one or two regiments had strong Irish contingents. Two British infantry regiments in particular, the 16th and 47th Regiments of Foot, were primarily Irish. And officers of those regiments formed an organization, the Society of the Friendly Brothers of St. Patrick, that held celebrations to mark March 17th. The observances generally consisted of both military men and civilians gathering to drink toasts, and participants would drink to the King, as well as to â€Å"the prosperity of Ireland.† Such celebrations were held at establishments including Hull’s Tavern and a tavern known as Bolton and Sigel’s. Post-Revolutionary St. Patrick's Day Celebrations During the Revolutionary War the celebrations of St. Patrick’s Day seem to have been muted. But with peace restored in a new nation, the celebrations resumed, but with a very different focus. Gone, of course, were the toasts to the health of the King. Beginning on March 17, 1784, the first St. Patrick’s Day after the British evacuated New York, the celebrations were held under the auspices of a new organization without Tory connections, the Friendly Sons of St. Patrick. The day was marked with music, no doubt again by fifes and drums, and a banquet was held at Cape’s Tavern in lower Manhattan. Huge Crowds Flocked to the St. Patrick's Day Parade Parades on St. Patrick’s Day continued throughout the early 1800s, and the early parades would often consist of processions marching from parish churches in the city to the original St. Patricks Cathedral on Mott Street. As the Irish population of New York swelled in the years of the Great Famine, the number of Irish organizations also increased. Reading old accounts of St. Patrick’s Day observances from the 1840s and early 1850s, it’s staggering to see how many organizations, all with their own civic and political orientation, were marking the day. The competition sometimes became heated, and in at least one year, 1858, there were actually two large and competing, St. Patricks Day parades in New York. In the early 1860s, the Ancient Order of Hibernians, an Irish immigrant group originally formed in the 1830s to combat nativism, began organizing one massive parade, which it still does to this day. The parades were not always without incident. In late March 1867, the New York newspapers were full of stories about violence that broke out at the parade in Manhattan, and also at a St. Patricks Day march in Brooklyn. Following that fiasco, the focus in following years was on making the parades and celebrations of St. Patricks Day a respectable reflection on the growing political influence of the Irish in New York. The St. Patrick's Day Parade Became a Mighty Political Symbol A lithograph of a St. Patricks Day parade in New York in the early 1870s shows a mass of people assembled in Union Square. Whats noteworthy is that the procession includes men costumed as gallowglasses, ancient soldiers of Ireland. They are marching before a wagon holding a bust of Daniel OConnell, the great 19th-century Irish political leader. The lithograph was published by Thomas Kelly (a competitor of Currier and Ives)  Ã¢â‚¬â€¹and was probably a popular item for sale. It indicates how the St. Patricks Day parade was becoming an annual symbol of Irish-American solidarity, complete with ​the  veneration of ancient Ireland as well as 19th century Irish nationalism. 1919 St. Patricks Day parade in New York City.   Getty Images The Modern St. Patrick's Day Parade Emerged In 1891 the Ancient Order of Hibernians adopted the familiar parade route, the march up Fifth Avenue, which it still follows today. And other practices, such as the banning of wagons and floats, also became standard. The parade as it exists today is essentially the same as it would have been in the 1890s, with many thousands of people marching, accompanied by bagpipe bands as well as brass bands. St. Patricks Day is also marked in other American cities, with large parades being staged in Boston, Chicago, Savannah, and elsewhere. And the concept of the St. Patricks Day parade has been exported back to Ireland: Dublin began its own St. Patricks Day festival in the mid-1990s, and its flashy parade, which is noted for large and colorful puppet-like characters, draws hundreds of thousands of spectators every March 17th.

Informative Speech-Marriage customs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Informative Speech-Marriage customs - Essay Example Each of the culture has unique dress code, cuisine line, ceremonies in their respective weddings all poles apart from each other. For example: Asian brides usually wear red on their wedding day while, European wear long white gowns (Gokulsing and Dissanayake, 2009). Though there are many traditions in many cultures but by performing this ritual there’s only one goal and one intention which is to unite two souls, two hearts and two individuals into one (Smith, 2003). The topic of my speech is arrange marriage customs in India and the steps needed for it. India is rich and vast when it comes about their culture and their weddings are considered as the most colorful weddings of Asia (Smith, 2003). Arranged marriages are those marriages in which both the family of about to be bride and groom sit together and plan the wedding. Usually the partner of either the girl or the boy is chosen by the parents, communal elders or by matchmakers. In arrange marriages a lot of things are considered like religion, ethical values, class, education, background and a lot more things which at least should be of exact match or should be equal (Srinivasan, 1997). In India it is supported that a parent will never consider something bad for the child. Parents are one of those people who are present at every stage of your life as a guide. As marriage is an important decision of one’s life so how parents at such stage can make wrong decision or suggestion (Visweswaran, 2011). Arrange marriages also involve choices, it’s wrongly said that it does not. Usually nothing happens with the affirmative signal of the bride and the groom (Viharini, 2010). The first step thus is to select a life partner, which is usually done by the parents or elders (Stephen, 2010). Although not everyone demands dowry, still usually it’s quite difficult for the family of the bride to search an adequate life partner for her and to send her off with enough

None Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 16

None - Essay Example It therefore draws interests from individuals both locally and globally and in fact it has been predicted that the election will be hotly contested. The Presidential election in the United States will feature the current president Barrack Obama who will be vying on the Democratic Party ticket against a Republican candidate who is yet to be elected (Gaylican 2). Both parties have already begun their campaigns with the Republican comprising of contenders such as Mitt Romney, Newt Gingrich, Ron Paul and Rick Santorum. The analysis of international events is done based on various levels such as individual, interstate, domestic and global. In this case, the presidential candidates are affected as individuals since their election will be based on what they have been able to do in the past and what they are capable of doing if elected. Barrack Obama for instance being the current president, his election will be based on his performance during the first term of four years. Duri ng his first tenure in office, he has managed to score on various achievements such as the overhaul in healthcare, the 2009 stimulus package and the bills of reform in the financial sector. Despite all these achievements, he still faces the challenge of high federal debt and unemployment which leaves many with doubts about their future. Mitt Romney on the other hand faces the challenges of convincing the voters on extend of his capability to successfully articulate traditional values. The United States is a country with people from other nations. The interstate relations therefore take a centre stage when it comes to the presidential elections. Other nations want to be assured of stability of their economies, businesses and harmonious relations. The candidate who proves to respect the interstate relations will therefore have higher chances of being elected. The majority of citizens in the United States recognize the fact that Obama took